Byzantine Art Essay Example for Free

Byzantine Art Essay Early Christian art was highly influenced by religious, political, and cultural changes. In contrast to the classical, idealistic portrayal of man, Early Christian art took a much more stylized approach to the depiction of man, with a neglected attention to human anatomy. The subject matter of much of the art turned from secular to religious; Christianity to be more specific. Constantine was the last emperor of the Roman Empire to hold undivided power. Under his rule, Constantine created the Edict of Milan, granting religious tolerance to all religions. This was of particular importance to Christians, who had been previously persecuted due to their spiritual beliefs. Because of the Edict of Milan, many Christian buildings were erected in addition to the many secular buildings that were transformed into Christian buildings. These buildings housed countless numbers of priceless religious artworks. One such example is the Transfiguration of Christ mosaic located in Saint Catherines Monastery in Sinai, Egypt. When Constantine moved the capital of the Roman Empire to Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople (modern day Istanbul), the Empire separated. Upon the division of the Roman Empire, Justinian, The Last Roman Emperor, held power over the Eastern Roman Empire from 527 to 565. Justinian was both a political and religious leader. Under his reign, many Christian buildings were constructed. Justinian often associated himself with Jesus Christ in the Byzantine artworks that these Christian buildings housed as a form of propaganda. The Orthodox Church now recognizes Justinian as a saint. Byzantine is a term used to describe eastern Mediterranean art from 330 to 1453, when the Turks conquered Constantinople (Strickland, 1992, p. 24). Mosaics were one of the most common forms of art during this period. They were intended to publicize the Christian creed through their religious subject matter (Strickland, 1992, p. 25). Byzantine mosaics are composed of small, colorful glass or stone squares and rectangles, called tesserae, embedded in wet cement or plaster. These tesserae were arranged in a manner through which they formed images. Typically, Byzantine mosaics are located on the walls and ceilings within a church apse and dome (Strickland, 1992, p. 25). The artists of these mosaics left the tesserae with jagged surfaces to create the sparkling, illuminated effect that distinguishes these mosaics  from those of other periods and places (Strickland, 1992, p. 25). The exteriors of Byzantine Christian structures were very plain in contrast to the elaborately decorated interiors. The awe-inspiring mosaics and icons brought the focus of the buildings to the interiors. Perhaps this was a method to spread the word of God by attracting people to come inside the buildings. Byzantine Emperor, Justinian, ordered the construction of he Monastery of the Transfiguration, more commonly known as Saint Catherines Monastery because the relics of Saint Catherine of Alexandria are said to have been inexplicably transported there, at the foot of Mount Moses (Wikipedia, 2006). The monastery houses the Chapel of the Burning Bush, which was ordered built by Constantines mother, Helena (Wikipedia, 2006). The Chapel of the Burning Bush is located at the site where Moses purportedly saw the burning bush (Wikipedia, 2006). Saint Catherines Monastery is now one of the oldest active monasteries in existence. The monastery survived Islamic dominance over the region due to a document that Mohammed supposedly signed himself, granting his protection over the monastery (Wikipedia, 2006). Saint Catherines Monastery allegedly gave Mohammed political asylum from his enemies (Wikipedia, 2006). In addition, a Fatimid mosque was built within the fortifications of Saint Catherines Monastery, thus creating further protection of the monastery from Islamic invasion (Wikipedia, 2006). Without the protection of Mohammed and the mosque, Saint Catherines Monastery would have been destroyed, and all of the irreplaceable artworks within its walls would have been lost. Byzantine mosaics contain many characteristics that distinguish them from the rest. The typical gold background of a Byzantine mosaic creates a sense of weightlessness within the figures, as if they are floating. Byzantine artists depicted sacred figures with halos, separating them from the other figures. With nude images having been forbidden, one can hardly make out the anatomy of the fully clothed figures. Though it is evident that symmetry was greatly appreciated, it is also evident that the mosaics lack perspective.  The figures depicted in the mosaics are flat and frontal facing with linear details. They are often slim with almond shaped faces and large eyes. The images depict little to no movement, creating a sense of stillness. These highly stylized Byzantine mosaics show disregard for Greco-Roman ideals. On an expedition set out by the University of Michigan in search of sites to excavate in the Near East, the staff spent five days at Saint Catherines Monastery (Forsyth, 1997). They discovered that the mosaics within the monastery had undergone little restoration since the time of Justinian (Forsyth, 1997). As a result, most of the works were in bad condition and on the verge of collapsing (Forsyth, 1997). Mosaic restorers came in to save the mosaics, which could have been lost forever (Forsyth, 1997). After they secured the mosaics, the restorers cleaned them (Forsyth, 1997). The mosaics now appear in their original state (Forsyth, 1997). One of the most known mosaics restored was the Transfiguration of Christ (Forsyth, 1997). The Transfiguration of Christ is located in the main church, Katholikon, in the apse over the high altar. The subject of this mosaic was an appropriate selection to portray in Saint Catherines Monastery because of its location at the foot of Mount Moses (Watson, 1999). In Christianity, the story claims that Jesus led three of his apostles, Peter, John, and James, to pray atop a mountain. It was here that Jesus transfigured, with his face shining like the sun and wearing bright white clothing. On both sides of Christ, Moses and Elijah appeared. Overhead, a brilliant cloud appeared, and Gods voice emerged from the cloud proclaiming, This is my Son, the Beloved. Listen to him. It was then that Jesus spoke with Moses and Elijah about his upcoming death. The artist of this mosaic is unknown because artists went unrecognized until much later. This mosaic is in the form of a triumphal arch, bordered by medallions occupying the busts of the twelve apostles, fifteen prophets, Longinus the Abbot, John the Deacon, two angels, and a Greek cross in the top, center (Watson, 1999). Jesus Christ is depicted in the center of the mosaic with black hair and beard. He was placed in an oval mandorla with a cross and a bright yellow circle depicting his illumination behind his head.  Rays of light are shown coming from Christs body. In addition to the mandorla depicting Christs holiness, this was done to make Christ the emphasis of the mosaic as well as to distinguish him from the other figures. Elijah is shown on one side of Christ, while Moses is shown on the other. Beneath Christ, Peter, John, and James are portrayed with awe (Watson, 1999). The Transfiguration of Christ contains all the elements of Byzantine mosaics. It has a bright gold background. The figures are dematerialized and one cannot tell which figures were intended to be floating and which are not. One can hardly make out the figures beneath the clothing and the only skin shown is on the figures faces, hands, and feet. All the figures were placed symmetrically around Christ, making him the focus of the mosaic. The halo and mandorla around Christ show his holiness. Only slight movement is shown through the figures poses. The figures are very flat, despite the attempts of the artist to show shadow and overlapping. All of the figures are slender with almond shaped heads and large eyes. One can hardly see perspective when observing this mosaic. In conclusion, religion, politics, and culture had a significant influence on The Transfiguration of Christ, and all Early Christian art for that matter. With the Edict of Milan legalizing Christianity, the focus of art turned from secular to religious, changing the course of art forever. The Edict of Milan made it possible for Christians to practice their spiritual beliefs openly, leading to Early Christian art. Early Christian art can be credited with the spread of Christianity. One might wonder if Christianity would be as prominent as it is today had it not been for these artworks, or would it have died off a long time ago. Without Early Christian art, one might wonder when or how todays modern day art would have evolved.

A Different Life :: essays research papers

A Different Life Silence came in seventh grade. It was in seventh grade that I began the first of six years at a private school. In those six years I realized that it was not only I who had lost their voice; I was one among many who were denied the opportunity to speak. I distinctly remember the first time they betrayed me and informed me that my voice was invalid. A close friend of mine from elementary school wanted to attend and I was telling others about him- telling them how neat he was. The three people whom I had felt I could trust- the headmaster, academic dean, and dean of students- cornered me and attacked me for things that I had supposedly said. They did not believe me when I pleaded my case, saying, "He is my friend. Why would I say such horrible things?" They three looked at each other, stuck their noses in the air and simply explained that it sounded like the kind of thing I would do. They did not know me. They had accepted a rumor as truth. They attacked me and disregarded my testimony. Unfortunately, this moment was merely the beginning of the silencing. It continued until the day I graduated. They condemned me for being curious and outspoken and lively. They shut me down for every brilliant idea I proposed, telling me that it was against the rules. I lived, quite literally, in this silence. I could not win by being myself, so I engulfed myself in obtaining their approval through silence and obedience. And I remember exactly what he said to me when I left. On June 4, 1999 my headmaster said to me, "Saint James has really changed you. You've really calmed down a lot. You've become a real lady." I finally gained his approval, but at what cost? Even then, when I was leaving, I could not find the voice to scream at him and tell him how deeply he had hurt me. I did not have the voice to tell him about all the pain he had brought me. I did not have the voice to tell him that I would have forfeited all of the "ladiness" I had gained over six years if I could have my voice back. Saint James taught me to bottle my emotions, because whenever I was open with them I would get in trouble.

Attitudes Towards Technology: Han China and Roman Empire Essay

Han and Roman attitudes towards technology in the late BCE and early CE pointed towards two main categories, positive and negative. The Majority of the documents had positive attitudes towards technology because of its obvious benefits to the author’s cities. Documents 1 and 8 show government officials in charge of water technology. Both show obvious support for the technology they are associated with, preventing floods or creating aqueducts for their cities. Also, their jobs require them to use technology so they must have an appreciation for it. Documents 3 and 4 describe times when the technology used to help citizens direct their water to help productivity. It is shown that both government and philosophers see a benefit of technology in society, clearly improving productivity for their whole country. Lastly, Document 6 shows Plutarch, a high government official, writing of the creation of roads that helped the mobility of horses, the organization of cities, and beauty of the land. On the other hand, few documents show points of view seeing technology in a negative light. Document 2 shows a govt. official describing the bad quality of technology because of lack of workers and quality labor. He also states that the lack of quality technology causes an increase in the iron and salt prices, resulting in lack of seasoning for the peasants’ food and lack of strong tools for farming. Documents 5 and 7 show two Roman upper classman opposed to technology because they believe inventors and craftsment lack wisdom and enlightenment. Their were two main point of view that could have affected the bias of the documents’ position on the matter. The first is shown in documents 1 and 8 where the sources are men with an occupation in technological work. This means they must have started with an appreciation for it. Also, the more they advertised the ideas of their technologies, the better the business was for them, making them more wealthy and important, thus more powerful. The second point of view comes from positions of very high power and little knowledge of the use of technology. Shown in documents 5 and 7 are two sources that have very high positions in their society where they lack experience and knowledge of the uses of technology. Had they known more and had first hand experience with tools and different crafts, they might have a  better appreciation for such â€Å"vulgar† jobs. Looking over the documents, it is made obvious that all the document come from high class citizens fiving us no perspective from the less wealthy. Had we gotten a document from a lower class citizen, we would then be able to draw info on how technology affected the larger part of societies. Also, all the sources come from male citizens fiving us no knowledge of the effect it technology had on the women. Perhaps their household lives were affected greatly by the creation of tools, an area of daily lives men of the upper class would have no knowledge of. The majority of attitude towards technology during the Han dynasty and Roman Empire reasonably was positive, but the portion of negative responses lay mostly in areas of lack of knowledge on the subject.

Ph.D. in Psychology or Psy.D.

If you plan to study psychology at the graduate level, youve got options. Both Ph.D. and Psy.D. degrees are doctoral degrees in psychology. However, they differ in history, emphasis, and logistics. Psy.D. Degree Has an Emphasis on Practice The Ph.D. in psychology has been around for well over 100 years, but the Psy.D., or doctorate of psychology degree is much newer. The Psy.D. degree became popular in the early 1970s, created as a professional degree, much like that for a lawyer. It trains graduates for applied work—in this case, therapy. The Ph.D. is a research degree, yet many students seek a doctoral degree in psychology to practice and do not plan to conduct research. Therefore, the Psy.D. is intended to prepare graduates for careers as practicing psychologists. The Psy.D. offers a great deal of training in therapeutic techniques and many supervised experiences, but there is less of an emphasis on research than in Ph.D. programs. As a graduate from a Psy.D. program, you can expect to excel in practice-related knowledge and experience. You will also become familiar with research methodology, read research articles, learn about research findings, and be able to apply research findings to your work. Essentially, Psy.D. graduates are trained to be consumers of research-based knowledge. Ph.D. Degree Has an Emphasis on Research Ph.D. programs are designed to train psychologists to not only understand and apply research  but also to conduct it. Ph.D. psychology graduates are trained to be creators of research-based knowledge. Ph.D. programs range in the emphasis they place on research and practice. Some programs emphasize creating scientists. In these programs, students spend most of their time on research and much less time on practice-related activities. In fact, these programs discourage students from engaging in therapeutic practice. While Psy.D. programs emphasize creating practitioners, many Ph.D. programs combine both the scientist and practitioner models. They create scientist-practitioners—graduates who are competent researchers as well as practitioners. If youre considering a degree in psychology, keep in mind these distinctions so that you apply to programs that are appropriate to your interests and goals. Ultimately, if you think you might want to engage in research or teach at a college at some point in your career, you should consider a Ph.D. over a Psy.D. because the research training provides more flexibility in career options. Funding of the Respective Programs Generally speaking, Ph.D. programs offer more funding than do Psy.D. programs. Most students who obtain a Psy.D. pay for their degrees with loans. Ph.D. programs, on the other hand, often have faculty members with research grants who can afford to hire students to work with them—and they often offer some combination of tuition and a stipend. Not all Ph.D. students are awarded funding, but you are more likely to get funding in a Ph.D. program. Time to Degree Generally speaking, Psy.D. students finish their graduate programs in less time than do Ph.D. students. A Psy.D. requires a specific number of years of coursework and practice, as well as a dissertation that usually requires students to apply research to a given problem or analyze the research literature. A Ph.D. also requires a specific number of years of coursework and practice, but the dissertation is a more cumbersome project because it requires that students devise, conduct, write, and defend a research study that will make an original contribution to academic literature. That could take an extra year or two—or more—than a Psy.D. Bottom Line Both the Psy.D. ​and Ph.D. are doctoral degrees in psychology. Which one you choose depends on your career goals—whether you prefer a career solely in practice  or one in research or a combination of research and practice.